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Open source

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Open source is <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code,<a href="#cite_note-Open_Source_Org.,_2007-1">[1]</a> design documents,<a href="#cite_note-Diffingo_Solutions_Inc.,_2008-2">[2]</a> or content of the product. The open source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

A main principle of <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open source software</a> development is peer production, with products such as <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open source eCommerce, open source appropriate technology,<a href="#cite_note-Pearce2012-5">[5]</a> and open source drug discovery.<a href="#cite_note-business-standard.com-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-OpenWetWare-7">[7]</a>

Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.<a href="#cite_note-LakhaniVonHippel2003-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-GerberMolefo2010-9">[9]</a> Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms, such as free software, shareware, and public domain software. Open source gained hold with the rise of the <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues.

Generally, open source refers to a <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a> in which the source code is available to the general public for usage, modification from its original design, and publication of their version (fork) back to the community. Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the <a href="Apache_Software_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Apache Software Foundation">Apache Software Foundation</a>, which supports community projects such as the open-source framework and the open-source <a href="HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a> server Apache HTTP.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">History of free and open-source software</a></div>

The sharing of technical information predates the Internet and the personal computer considerably. For instance, in the early years of automobile development a group of capital <a href="Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolists</a> owned the rights to a <a href="2_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="2 cycle">2-cycle</a> gasoline-engine patent originally filed by <a href="George_B._Selden" title="George B. Selden">George B. Selden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-carculture-11">[11]</a> By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit.

In 1911, independent automaker <a href="Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> won a challenge to <a href="George_B._Selden#The_Selden_patent" title="George B. Selden">the Selden patent</a>. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association) was formed.<a href="#cite_note-carculture-11">[11]</a> The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among all US automotive manufacturers: although each company would develop technology and file patents, these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money among all the manufacturers.<a href="#cite_note-carculture-11">[11]</a> By the time the US entered <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, 92 Ford patents and 515 patents from other companies were being shared among these manufacturers, without any exchange of money (or lawsuits).<a href="#cite_note-carculture-11">[11]</a>

Early instances of the free sharing of source code include <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s source releases of its <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a> and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the <a href="SHARE_(computing)" title="SHARE (computing)">SHARE</a> user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated172-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-13">[13]</a> Beginning in the 1960s, <a href="ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> researchers used an open "<a href="Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a>" (RFC) process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols. This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969.

The sharing of source code on the Internet began when the Internet was relatively primitive, with software distributed via <a href="UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a>, <a href="Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a>, <a href="Internet_Relay_Chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Relay Chat">IRC</a>, and <a href="Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a>. <a href="BSD" class="mw-redirect" title="BSD">BSD</a>, for example, was first widely distributed by posts to comp.os.linux on the Usenet, which is also where its development was discussed. <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> followed in this model.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Open_source_as_a_term">Open source as a term</h3></div>

Open source as a term emerged in the late 1990s by a group of people in the free software movement who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In addition, the ambiguity of the term "free software" was seen as discouraging business adoption.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-infoworld1983-16">[16]</a> However, the ambiguity of the word "free" exists primarily in English as it can refer to cost. The group included <a href="Christine_Peterson" title="Christine Peterson">Christine Peterson</a>, Todd Anderson, <a href="Larry_Augustin" title="Larry Augustin">Larry Augustin</a>, <a href="Jon_Hall_(programmer)" title="Jon Hall (programmer)">Jon Hall</a>, Sam Ockman, <a href="Michael_Tiemann" title="Michael Tiemann">Michael Tiemann</a> and <a href="Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Eric S. Raymond</a>. Peterson suggested "open source" at a meeting<a href="#cite_note-osihistory-17">[17]</a> held at <a href="Palo_Alto%2C_California" title="Palo Alto, California">Palo Alto, California</a>, in reaction to <a href="Netscape_Communications_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Netscape Communications Corporation">Netscape</a>'s announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for <a href="Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Navigator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Conflict-18">[18]</a> <a href="Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> gave his support the following day, and Phil Hughes backed the term in <a href="Linux_Journal" title="Linux Journal">Linux Journal</a>. Richard Stallman, the founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) in 1985, quickly decided against endorsing the term.<a href="#cite_note-osihistory-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-rmsdissent-19">[19]</a> The FSF's goal was to promote the development and use of free software, which they defined as software that grants users the freedom to run, study, share, and modify the code. This concept is similar to open source but places a greater emphasis on the ethical and political aspects of software freedom. Netscape released its source code under the Netscape Public License and later under the <a href="Mozilla_Public_License" title="Mozilla Public License">Mozilla Public License</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Muffatto000-20">[20]</a>

Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.<a href="#cite_note-raymondCall-21">[21]</a> Shortly after, he founded The Open Source Initiative in collaboration with <a href="Bruce_Perens" title="Bruce Perens">Bruce Perens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-osihistory-17">[17]</a>

The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher <a href="O'Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a> . Originally titled the "Freeware Summit" and later known as the "Open Source Summit",<a href="#cite_note-opensourcesummit-22">[22]</a> the event was attended by the leaders of many of the most important free and open-source projects, including Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, Brian Behlendorf, Eric Allman, Guido van Rossum, Michael Tiemann, Paul Vixie, Jamie Zawinski, and Eric Raymond. At that meeting, alternatives to the term "free software" were discussed. Tiemann argued for "sourceware" as a new term, while Raymond argued for "open source." The assembled developers took a vote, and the winner was announced at a press conference the same evening.<a href="#cite_note-opensourcesummit-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Open-source_economics" title="Open-source economics">Open-source economics</a></div>

Some economists agree that open-source is an <a href="Information_good" title="Information good">information good</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost – this is referred to as the <a href="Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">marginal cost</a> of a product. <a href="Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a> creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a <a href="Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative work</a>—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a <a href="Remix" title="Remix">remix</a> of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so.

Being organized as effectively a "<a href="Consumers'_cooperative" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumers' cooperative">consumers' cooperative</a>", open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright. Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also more frequent creation of derivative works. Organizations such as <a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> host websites where individuals can file for alternative "licenses", or levels of restriction, for their works.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

These self-made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement.

Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the <a href="Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a> (which depends largely on patents, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> For example, in the context of <a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">open-source hardware</a> design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. <a href="RepRap" title="RepRap">RepRap</a> 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the <a href="Peer_production" title="Peer production">peer production</a> community.

Many open-source projects have a high economic value. According to the Battery Open Source Software Index (BOSS), the ten economically most important open-source projects are:<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-techcrunch.com-30">[30]</a>

<th>Ranking

</th>

<th>Project

</th>

<th>Leading company

</th>

<th>Market value

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>1

</th>

<td><a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>

</td>

</td>

<td>$16 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>2

</th>

</td>

<td><a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>

</td>

<td>$2 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>3

</th>

<td><a href="MySQL" title="MySQL">MySQL</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Oracle_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle (company)">Oracle</a>

</td>

<td>$1.87 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>4

</th>

</td>

<td>NodeSource

</td>

<td style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #EEE); color: var(--color-base, black); vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; text-align: center;" class="table-Unknown">?

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>5

</th>

<td><a href="Docker_(software)" title="Docker (software)">Docker</a>

</td>

<td>Docker

</td>

<td>$1 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>6

</th>

<td><a href="Apache_Hadoop" title="Apache Hadoop">Hadoop</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Cloudera" title="Cloudera">Cloudera</a>

</td>

<td>$3 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>7

</th>

<td><a href="Elasticsearch" title="Elasticsearch">Elasticsearch</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Elastic_NV" title="Elastic NV">Elastic NV</a>

</td>

<td>$700 million

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>8

</th>

<td><a href="Apache_Spark" title="Apache Spark">Spark</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Databricks" title="Databricks">Databricks</a>

</td>

<td>$513 million

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>9

</th>

<td><a href="MongoDB" title="MongoDB">MongoDB</a>

</td>

<td><a href="MongoDB_Inc." title="MongoDB Inc.">MongoDB Inc.</a>

</td>

<td>$1.57 billion

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>10

</th>

<td><a href="Selenium_(software)" title="Selenium (software)">Selenium</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Sauce_Labs" title="Sauce Labs">Sauce Labs</a>

</td>

<td>$470 million

</td></tr></tbody></table>

The rank given is based on the activity regarding projects in online discussions, on GitHub, on search activity in search engines and on the influence on the labour market.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Licensing_alternatives">Licensing alternatives</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></div>

Alternative arrangements have also been shown to result in good creation outside of the proprietary license model. Examples include:

<ul><li>Creation for its own sake – For example, Wikipedia editors add content for recreation. Artists have a drive to create. Both communities benefit from free starting material.</li>

<li>Voluntary after-the-fact donations – used by <a href="Shareware" title="Shareware">shareware</a>, <a href="Street_performer" class="mw-redirect" title="Street performer">street performers</a>, and <a href="Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">public broadcasting</a> in the United States.</li>

<li>Patron – For example, <a href="Open-access" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-access">open-access</a> publishing relies on institutional and government funding of research faculty, who also have a professional incentive to publish for reputation and career advancement. Works of the US government are automatically released into the <a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Freemium" title="Freemium">Freemium</a> – Give away a limited version for free and charge for a premium version (potentially using a <a href="Dual_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual license">dual license</a>).</li>

<li>Give away the product and charge something related – charge for support of open-source <a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">enterprise software</a>, give away music but charge for concert admission.</li>

<li>Give away work to gain market share – used by artists, in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor (for example in the <a href="Browser_wars" title="Browser wars">browser wars</a> and the <a href="Android_operating_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Android operating system">Android operating system</a>).</li>

<li>For own use – Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem, bearing the full cost of initial creation. They will then open source the solution, and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs. Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users; <a href="Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">free riders</a> can also benefit without undermining the creation process. <a href="Drupal" title="Drupal">Drupal</a>'s founder <a href="Dries_Buytaert" title="Dries Buytaert">Dries Buytaert</a> has summarized this as the Maker/Taker problem.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></li>

<li>Blockchain based licensing. Developers register their contributions on a blockchain and when usage licenses are generated the revenue is shared through the blockchain.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Open_collaboration">Open collaboration</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Open_collaboration" title="Open collaboration">Open collaboration</a></div>

The open-source model is a decentralized <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a> model that encourages <a href="Open_collaboration" title="Open collaboration">open collaboration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a> A main principle of <a href="Open-source_software_development" title="Open-source software development">open-source software development</a> is <a href="Peer_production" title="Peer production">peer production</a>, with products such as source code, <a href="Blueprint" title="Blueprint">blueprints</a>, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in <a href="Open-source_appropriate_technology" title="Open-source appropriate technology">open-source appropriate technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pearce2012-5">[5]</a> and open-source drug discovery.<a href="#cite_note-business-standard.com-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-OpenWetWare-7">[7]</a>

The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in <a href="Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">Internet forums</a>,<a href="#cite_note-LakhaniVonHippel2003-8">[8]</a> <a href="Mailing_list" title="Mailing list">mailing lists</a><a href="#cite_note-Jarvenpaa,_S._L._2008-34">[34]</a> and <a href="Online_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Online communities">online communities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Faraj,_S._2011-35">[35]</a> Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including <a href="TEDx" class="mw-redirect" title="TEDx">TEDx</a> and Wikipedia.<a href="#cite_note-kurzweilai.net-36">[36]</a>

Open collaboration is the principle underlying <a href="Peer_production" title="Peer production">peer production</a>, <a href="Mass_collaboration" title="Mass collaboration">mass collaboration</a>, and <a href="Wikinomics" title="Wikinomics">wikinomics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a> It was observed initially in open-source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in <a href="Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">Internet forums</a>,<a href="#cite_note-LakhaniVonHippel2003-8">[8]</a> <a href="Mailing_list" title="Mailing list">mailing lists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jarvenpaa,_S._L._2008-34">[34]</a> Internet communities,<a href="#cite_note-Faraj,_S._2011-35">[35]</a> and many instances of <a href="Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">open content</a>, such as <a href="Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons</a>. It also explains some instances of <a href="Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">crowdsourcing</a>, <a href="Collaborative_consumption" title="Collaborative consumption">collaborative consumption</a>, and <a href="Open_innovation" title="Open innovation">open innovation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a>

Riehle et al. define open collaboration as collaboration based on three principles of <a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>, <a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, and <a href="Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RiehleEllenberger2009-37">[37]</a> Levine and Prietula define open collaboration as "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike."<a href="#cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">[3]</a> This definition captures multiple instances, all joined by similar principles. For example, all of the elements – goods of economic value, open access to contribute and consume, interaction and exchange, purposeful yet loosely coordinated work – are present in an open-source software project, in Wikipedia, or in a user forum or community. They can also be present in a commercial website that is based on <a href="User-generated_content" title="User-generated content">user-generated content</a>. In all of these instances of open collaboration, anyone can contribute and anyone can freely partake in the fruits of sharing, which are produced by interacting participants who are loosely coordinated.

An annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of open collaboration is the International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration (OpenSym, formerly WikiSym).<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> As per its website, the group defines open collaboration as "collaboration that is egalitarian (everyone can join, no principled or artificial barriers to participation exist), meritocratic (decisions and status are merit-based rather than imposed) and self-organizing (processes adapt to people rather than people adapt to pre-defined processes)."<a href="#cite_note-Opensym-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Open-source_license">Open-source license</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">Open-source license</a> and <a href="List_of_free-content_licences" title="List of free-content licences">List of free-content licences</a></div>

Open source promotes universal access via an <a href="Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">open-source</a> or <a href="Free_license" title="Free license">free license</a> to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.<a href="#cite_note-LakhaniVonHippel2003-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-GerberMolefo2010-9">[9]</a> Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold in part due to the rise of the Internet.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The <a href="Open-source_software_movement" title="Open-source software movement">open-source software movement</a> arose to clarify <a href="Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="License" title="License">licensing</a>, <a href="Domain_name" title="Domain name">domain</a>, and consumer issues.

An open-source license is a type of <a href="License_compatibility" title="License compatibility">license</a> for computer software and other products that allows the <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>, blueprint or design to be used, modified or shared (with or without modification) under defined terms and conditions.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Popp2-42">[42]</a> This allows end users and commercial companies to review and modify the source code, blueprint or design for their own customization, curiosity or troubleshooting needs. Open-source licensed software is mostly available <a href="Freeware" title="Freeware">free</a> of charge, though this does not necessarily have to be the case. Licenses which only permit non-commercial redistribution or modification of the source code for personal use only are generally not considered as open-source licenses. However, open-source licenses may have some restrictions, particularly regarding the expression of respect to the origin of software, such as a requirement to preserve the name of the authors and a copyright statement within the code, or a requirement to redistribute the licensed software only under the same license (as in a <a href="Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> license). One popular set of <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open-source software</a> licenses are those approved by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) based on their <a href="Open_Source_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Source Definition">Open Source Definition</a> (OSD).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But <a href="Eric_Raymond" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric Raymond">Eric Raymond</a> and other founders of the <a href="Open-source_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source movement">open-source movement</a> have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling. The broader impact of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.

The <a href="Open-source_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source movement">open-source movement</a> has inspired increased <a href="Transparency_(humanities)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (humanities)">transparency</a> and liberty in <a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> research, for example <a href="CAMBIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CAMBIA">CAMBIA</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open-source principles.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> It has also given rise to the rapidly-expanding <a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">open-source hardware</a> movement.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_software">Computer software</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a></div>

<a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a> is software which source code is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<a href="LibreOffice" title="LibreOffice">LibreOffice</a> and the <a href="GIMP" title="GIMP">GNU Image Manipulation Program</a> are examples of open source software. As they do with proprietary software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source software—but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses.

Open-source code can evolve through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual programmers as well as large companies. Some of the individual programmers who start an open-source project may end up establishing companies offering products or services incorporating open-source programs. Examples of open-source software products are:<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> (that much of world's server parks are running)</li>

<li><a href="MediaWiki" title="MediaWiki">MediaWiki</a> (that Wikipedia is based upon)</li>

<li>Many more:

<ul><li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages" title="List of free and open-source software packages">List of free and open-source software packages</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_formerly_proprietary_software" title="List of formerly proprietary software">List of formerly proprietary software</a></li></ul></li></ul>

The <a href="Google_Summer_of_Code" title="Google Summer of Code">Google Summer of Code</a>, often abbreviated to GSoC, is an international annual program in which Google awards stipends to contributors who successfully complete a free and open-source software coding project during the summer. GSoC is a large scale project with 202 participating organizations in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> There are similar smaller scale projects such as the Talawa Project<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> run by the <a href="Palisadoes_Foundation" title="Palisadoes Foundation">Palisadoes Foundation</a> (a non profit based in California, originally to promote the use of information technology in Jamaica, but now also supporting underprivileged communities in the US)<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronics">Electronics</h3></div>

<a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a> is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open-source hardware initiatives are:

<ul><li><a href="Openmoko" title="Openmoko">Openmoko</a>: a family of open-source mobile phones, including the hardware specification and the <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>.</li>

<li><a href="OpenRISC" title="OpenRISC">OpenRISC</a>: an open-source microprocessor family, with architecture specification licensed under <a href="GNU_GPL" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL">GNU GPL</a> and implementation under <a href="LGPL" class="mw-redirect" title="LGPL">LGPL</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun Microsystems</a>'s <a href="OpenSPARC" title="OpenSPARC">OpenSPARC</a> T1 Multicore processor. Sun has released it under GPL.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li>

<li><a href="Arduino" title="Arduino">Arduino</a>, a microcontroller platform for hobbyists, artists and designers.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li>

<li><a href="Simputer" title="Simputer">Simputer</a>, an open hardware <a href="Handheld_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Handheld computer">handheld computer</a>, designed in India for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li>

<li><a href="LEON" title="LEON">LEON</a>: A family of open-source microprocessors distributed in a library with peripheral <a href="IP_core" class="mw-redirect" title="IP core">IP cores</a>, open <a href="SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a> V8 specification, implementation available under <a href="GNU_GPL" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL">GNU GPL</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Tinkerforge" title="Tinkerforge">Tinkerforge</a>: A system of open-source stackable microcontroller building blocks. Allows control of motors and read out sensors with the programming languages C, C++, C#, Object Pascal, Java, PHP, Python and Ruby over a USB or Wifi connection on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. All of the hardware is licensed under <a href="CERN_Open_Hardware_License" class="mw-redirect" title="CERN Open Hardware License">CERN OHL</a> (CERN Open Hardware License).</li>

<li><a href="Open_Compute_Project" title="Open Compute Project">Open Compute Project</a>: designs for computer data center including power supply, Intel motherboard, AMD motherboard, chassis, racks, battery cabinet, and aspects of electrical and mechanical design.<a href="#cite_note-OpenComputeProj-53">[53]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_and_beverages">Food and beverages</h3></div>

Some publishers of <a href="Open-access" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-access">open-access</a> journals have argued that <a href="Open_data" title="Open data">data</a> from <a href="Food_science" title="Food science">food science</a> and <a href="Gastronomy" title="Gastronomy">gastronomy</a> studies should be freely available to aid <a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_cola" title="Open-source cola">Open-source colas</a> – cola soft drinks, similar to <a href="Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a> and <a href="Pepsi" title="Pepsi">Pepsi</a>, whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages keep their formulas secret and unknown to the general public.<a href="#cite_note-octavio1-56">[56]</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Beer" title="Free Beer">Free Beer</a> (originally Vores Øl) – is an open-source beer created by students at the <a href="IT_University_of_Copenhagen" title="IT University of Copenhagen">IT-University</a> in Copenhagen together with <a href="Superflex" title="Superflex">Superflex</a>, an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_content">Digital content</h3></div>

<ul><li>Open-content projects organized by the Wikimedia Foundation – Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary have embraced the open-content <a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> content licenses. These licenses were designed to adhere to principles similar to various open-source software development licenses. Many of these licenses ensure that content remains free for re-use, that source documents are made readily available to interested parties, and that changes to content are accepted easily back into the system. Important sites embracing open-source-like ideals are <a href="Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> and <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>, both of which post many books on which the copyright has expired and are thus in the <a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>, ensuring that anyone has free, unlimited access to that content.</li>

<li>Open ICEcat is an open catalog for the IT, CE and Lighting sectors with product data-sheets based on <a href="Open_Content_License" title="Open Content License">Open Content License</a> agreement. The digital content are distributed in XML and URL formats.</li>

<li><a href="SketchUp" title="SketchUp">SketchUp</a>'s <a href="3D_Warehouse" class="mw-redirect" title="3D Warehouse">3D Warehouse</a> is an open-source design community centered around the use of proprietary software that's distributed free of charge.</li>

<li>The <a href="University_of_Waterloo_Stratford_Campus" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Waterloo Stratford Campus">University of Waterloo Stratford Campus</a> invites students every year to use its three-storey Christie <a href="MicroTiles" title="MicroTiles">MicroTiles</a> wall as a digital canvas for their creative work.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3></div>

<ul><li>Pharmaceuticals – There have been several proposals for open-source pharmaceutical development,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium.<a href="#cite_note-OpenWetWare-7">[7]</a></li>

<li>Genomics – The term "open-source genomics" refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data (especially raw reads) and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that characterized the analysis of the <a href="2011_E._coli_O104%3AH4_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak">2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenEMR" title="OpenEMR">OpenEMR</a> – OpenEMR is an ONC-ATB Ambulatory EHR 2011-2012 certified electronic health records and medical practice management application. It features fully integrated electronic health, records, practice management, scheduling, electronic billing, and is the base for many EHR programs.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_engineering">Science and engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Open_research" title="Open research">Open research</a></div>

<ul><li>Research – The <a href="Science_Commons" title="Science Commons">Science Commons</a> was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></li>

<li>Research – <a href="The_Open_Solar_Outdoors_Test_Field" title="The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field">The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field</a> (OSOTF)<a href="#cite_note-osotf-67">[67]</a> is a grid-connected <a href="Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.<a href="#cite_note-osotf-67">[67]</a></li>

<li>Engineering – <a href="Hyperloop" title="Hyperloop">Hyperloop</a>, a form of high-speed transport proposed by entrepreneur <a href="Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a>, which he describes as "an elevated, reduced-pressure tube that contains pressurized capsules driven within the tube by a number of linear electric motors".<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li>

<li>Construction – <a href="WikiHouse" title="WikiHouse">WikiHouse</a> is an open-source project for designing and building houses.<a href="#cite_note-LaBarre-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kingsley-70">[70]</a></li>

<li>Energy research – The <a href="Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative" title="Open Energy Modelling Initiative">Open Energy Modelling Initiative</a> promotes open-source models and open data in energy research and policy advice.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Robotics">Robotics</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Open-source robotics</a></div>

An open-source robot is a <a href="Robot" title="Robot">robot</a> whose blueprints, schematics, or source code are released under an open-source model.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div>

<ul><li>Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.</li>

<li><a href="Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design</a> – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_appropriate_technology" title="Open-source appropriate technology">Open-source appropriate technology</a> (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as <a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source software</a>.<a href="#cite_note-buitenhuis-72">[72]</a> These technologies must be "<a href="Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">appropriate technology</a>" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the <a href="RepRap" title="RepRap">RepRap</a> to manufacture appropriate technology.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></li>

<li>Teaching – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Other examples include <a href="Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a> and <a href="Wikiversity" title="Wikiversity">wikiversity</a>. At the university level, the use of <a href="Open-source_appropriate_technology" title="Open-source appropriate technology">open-source-appropriate technology</a> classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of <a href="Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">appropriate technology</a>. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving <a href="Service_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Service learning">service learning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li>

<li>There are few examples of business information (methodologies, advice, guidance, practices) using the open-source model, although this is another case where the potential is enormous. <a href="ITIL" title="ITIL">ITIL</a> is close to open source. It uses the <a href="The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar">Cathedral model</a> (no mechanism exists for user contribution) and the content must be bought for a fee that is small by business consulting standards (hundreds of British pounds). Various checklists are published by government, banks or accounting firms.</li>

<li>An open-source group emerged in 2012 that is attempting to design a firearm that may be downloaded from the internet and "printed" on a <a href="3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D Printer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-f20120823-78">[78]</a> Calling itself <a href="Defense_Distributed" title="Defense Distributed">Defense Distributed</a>, the group wants to facilitate "a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer".<a href="#cite_note-pcm20120824-79">[79]</a></li>

<li>Agrecol, a German NGO has developed an open-source licence for seeds operating with <a href="Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> and created OpenSourceSeeds as a respective service provider. Breeders that apply the license to their new invented material prevent it from the threat of privatisation and help to establish a commons-based breeding sector as an alternative to the commercial sector.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a>, farm equipment and global village construction kit.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Open"_versus_"free"_versus_"free_and_open"">"Open" versus "free" versus "free and open"</h2></div>

<a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a> (FOSS) or <a href="Free_and_open-source_software#Overview" title="Free and open-source software">free/libre and open-source software</a> (FLOSS) is openly shared source code that is licensed without any restrictions on usage, modification, or distribution. Confusion persists about this definition because the "free", also known as "libre", refers to the freedom of the product, not the price, expense, cost, or charge. For example, "being free to speak" is not the same as "free beer".<a href="#cite_note-rmsdissent-19">[19]</a>

Conversely, Richard Stallman argues the "obvious meaning" of term "open source" is that the source code is public/accessible for inspection, without necessarily any other rights granted, although the proponents of the term say the conditions in the <a href="Open_Source_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Source Definition">Open Source Definition</a> must be fulfilled.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>

"Free and open" should not be confused with public ownership (<a href="State_ownership" title="State ownership">state ownership</a>), deprivatization (<a href="Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalization</a>), anti-privatization (<a href="Anti-corporate_activism" title="Anti-corporate activism">anti-corporate activism</a>), or <a href="Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparent behavior</a>.

<ul><li><a href="GNU_Manifesto" title="GNU Manifesto">GNU Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gratis_versus_libre" title="Gratis versus libre">Gratis versus libre</a> (no cost vs no restriction)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></div>

Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> is available to the general public for use for any (including commercial) purpose, or modification from its original design. Open-source code is meant to be a collaborative effort, where programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community. Code is released under the terms of a <a href="Software_license" title="Software license">software license</a>. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community.

<dl><dd><ul><li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages" title="List of free and open-source software packages">List of free and open-source software packages</a></li></ul></dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">Open-source license</a>, a copyright license that makes the source code available with a product

<ul><li><a href="The_Open_Source_Definition" title="The Open Source Definition">The Open Source Definition</a>, as used by the <a href="Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a> for open source software</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source model">Open-source model</a>, a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a>, software which permits the use and modification of its source code</li>

<li><a href="History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">History of free and open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_advocacy" title="Open-source software advocacy">Open-source software advocacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_development" title="Open-source software development">Open-source software development</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source-software_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source-software movement">Open-source-software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_video_game" title="Open-source video game">Open-source video games</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_open-source_video_games" title="List of open-source video games">List of open-source video games</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_and_closed-source_software" title="Comparison of open-source and closed-source software">Comparison of open-source and closed-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Diversity_in_open-source_software" title="Diversity in open-source software">Diversity in open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="MapGuide_Open_Source" title="MapGuide Open Source">MapGuide Open Source</a>, a web-based <a href="Cartography" title="Cartography">map-making</a> platform to develop and deploy web mapping applications and geospatial web services (not to be confused with <a href="OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a> (OSM), a <a href="Virtual_community" title="Virtual community">collaborative project</a> to create a <a href="Free_content" title="Free content">free</a> editable map of the world).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardware">Hardware</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agriculture,_economy,_manufacturing_and_production">Agriculture, economy, manufacturing and production</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_appropriate_technology" title="Open-source appropriate technology">Open-source appropriate technology</a> (OSAT), is designed for environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, economic, and community aspects</li>

<li><a href="Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a>, development of physical products, machines and systems via publicly shared design information, including <a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source software</a> and <a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">open-source hardware</a>, among many others:

<ul><li><a href="Open_Architecture_Network" title="Open Architecture Network">Open Architecture Network</a>, improving global living conditions through innovative <a href="Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">sustainable design</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenCores" title="OpenCores">OpenCores</a>, a community developing <a href="Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> electronic <a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">open-source hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Design_Alliance" title="Open Design Alliance">Open Design Alliance</a>, develops <a href="Teigha" class="mw-redirect" title="Teigha">Teigha</a>, a software development platform to create engineering applications including <a href="Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">CAD</a> software</li>

<li><a href="Open_Hardware_and_Design_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Hardware and Design Alliance">Open Hardware and Design Alliance</a> (OHANDA), sharing open hardware and designs via free online services</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a> (OSE), a network of farmers, engineers, architects and supporters striving to manufacture the <a href="Global_Village_Construction_Set" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Village Construction Set">Global Village Construction Set</a> (GVCS)</li>

<li><a href="OpenStructures" title="OpenStructures">OpenStructures</a> (OSP), a <a href="Modular_design" title="Modular design">modular construction</a> model where everyone designs on the basis of one shared geometrical OS grid</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open_manufacturing" title="Open manufacturing">Open manufacturing</a> or "Open Production" or "Design Global, Manufacture Local", a new <a href="Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> production model to openly and collaboratively produce and distribute physical objects</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_architecture" title="Open-source architecture">Open-source architecture</a> (OSArc), emerging procedures in imagination and formation of virtual and real spaces within an inclusive universal infrastructure</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_cola" title="Open-source cola">Open-source cola</a>, cola soft drinks made to open-sourced recipes</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a>, or open hardware, computer hardware, such as microprocessors, that is designed in the same fashion as open source software

<ul><li><a href="List_of_open-source_hardware_projects" title="List of open-source hardware projects">List of open-source hardware projects</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_product_development" title="Open-source product development">Open-source product development</a> (OSPD), collaborative product and process openness of open-source hardware for any interested participants</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Open-source robotics</a>, physical artifacts of the subject are offered by the open design movement</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Seed_Initiative" title="Open Source Seed Initiative">Open Source Seed Initiative</a>, open source varieties of crop seeds, as an alternative to patent-protected seeds sold by large agriculture companies.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_medicine">Science and medicine</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_science" title="Open science">Open science</a>, the movement to make scientific research, data and dissemination accessible to all levels of an inquiring society, amateur or professional

<ul><li><a href="Open_science_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Open science data">Open science data</a>, a type of <a href="Open_data" title="Open data">open data</a> focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze and reuse</li>

<li><a href="Open_Science_Framework" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Science Framework">Open Science Framework</a> and the <a href="Center_for_Open_Science" title="Center for Open Science">Center for Open Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Lab_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Open Source Lab (disambiguation)">Open Source Lab (disambiguation)</a>, several laboratories</li>

<li><a href="Open-Source_Lab_(book)" title="Open-Source Lab (book)">Open-Source Lab (book)</a>, a 2014 book by Joshua M. Pearce</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-notebook_science" title="Open-notebook science">Open-notebook science</a>, the practice of making the entire primary record of a <a href="Research_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Research project">research project</a> publicly available online as it is recorded</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Physics" title="Open Source Physics">Open Source Physics</a> (OSP), a <a href="National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> and <a href="Davidson_College" title="Davidson College">Davidson College</a> project to spread the use of open source code libraries that take care of much of the heavy lifting for physics</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Geospatial_Foundation" title="Open Source Geospatial Foundation">Open Source Geospatial Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="NASA_Open_Source_Agreement" title="NASA Open Source Agreement">NASA Open Source Agreement</a> (NOSA), an <a href="Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">OSI</a>-approved <a href="Software_license" title="Software license">software license</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_software_for_mathematics" title="List of open-source software for mathematics">List of open-source software for mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_bioinformatics_software" title="List of open-source bioinformatics software">List of open-source bioinformatics software</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">List of open-source health software</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_health_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="List of open-source health hardware">List of open-source health hardware</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_film" title="Open-source film">Open-source film</a>, open source movies

<ul><li><a href="List_of_open-source_films" title="List of open-source films">List of open-source films</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Cinema" title="Open Source Cinema">Open Source Cinema</a>, a collaborative website to produce a documentary film</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_journalism" title="Open-source journalism">Open-source journalism</a>, commonly describes a spectrum on online publications, forms of innovative publishing of <a href="Online_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Online journalism">online journalism</a>, and content voting, rather than the sourcing of news stories by "professional" journalists

<ul><li>Open-source investigation</li></ul>

<dl><dd>See also: <a href="Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">Crowdsourcing</a>, crowdsourced journalism, crowdsourced investigation, <a href="Truther_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Truther (disambiguation)">trutherism</a>, and <a href="Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">historical revisionism</a> considered "fringe" by corporate media.</dd></dl></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_record_label" title="Open-source record label">Open-source record label</a>, open source music</li>

<li>"Open Source", a 1960s rock song performed by <a href="The_Magic_Mushrooms" title="The Magic Mushrooms">The Magic Mushrooms</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_(radio_show)" title="Open Source (radio show)">Open Source (radio show)</a>, a radio show using open content information gathering methods hosted by <a href="Christopher_Lydon" title="Christopher Lydon">Christopher Lydon</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_textbook" title="Open textbook">Open textbook</a>, an open copyright licensed textbook made freely available online for students, teachers, and the public</li>

<li><a href="Library_(computing)#CAD_library" title="Library (computing)">CAD libraries</a> - such as <a href="SketchUp" title="SketchUp">SketchUp</a> <a href="SketchUp#3D_Warehouse" title="SketchUp">3D Warehouse</a> and <a href="GrabCAD" title="GrabCAD">GrabCAD</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a> (OSI), an organization dedicated to promote open source</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Software_Institute" title="Open Source Software Institute">Open Source Software Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Open_Source_Software" title="Journal of Open Source Software">Journal of Open Source Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Day" title="Open Source Day">Open Source Day</a>, the dated varies from year to year for an international conference for fans of open solutions from <a href="Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Developers'_Conference" title="Open Source Developers' Conference">Open Source Developers' Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Development_Labs" title="Open Source Development Labs">Open Source Development Labs</a> (OSDL), a non-profit corporation that provides space for open-source project</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Drug_Discovery" title="Open Source Drug Discovery">Open Source Drug Discovery</a>, a collaborative drug discovery platform for <a href="Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">neglected tropical diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Geeknet#SourceForge_and_OSDN" title="Geeknet">Open Source Technology Group</a> (OSTG), news, forums, and other <a href="SourceForge" title="SourceForge">SourceForge</a> resources for IT</li>

<li><a href="Open_source_in_Kosovo" title="Open source in Kosovo">Open source in Kosovo</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_University_Meetup" title="Open Source University Meetup">Open Source University Meetup</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Zealand_Open_Source_Awards" title="New Zealand Open Source Awards">New Zealand Open Source Awards</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedures">Procedures</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_security" title="Open security">Open security</a>, application of open source philosophies to computer security</li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Information_System" title="Open Source Information System">Open Source Information System</a>, the former name of an American <a href="Unclassified" class="mw-redirect" title="Unclassified">unclassified</a> <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">network</a> serving the <a href="United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">U.S. intelligence community</a> with <a href="Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">open-source intelligence</a>, since mid-2006 the content of OSIS is now known as <a href="Intelink" title="Intelink">Intelink</a>-U while the network portion is known as <a href="DNI-U" class="mw-redirect" title="DNI-U">DNI-U</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">Open-source intelligence</a>, an intelligence gathering discipline based on information collected from open sources (not to be confused with open-source artificial intelligence such as <a href="Mycroft_(software)" title="Mycroft (software)">Mycroft (software)</a>).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div>

The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often <a href="Copyright" title="Copyright">copyrighted</a>, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the United States) and penalties, such as those articulated in the <a href="Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies.<a href="#cite_note-copyright1998-82">[82]</a>

Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under <a href="Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair-use</a> doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines create an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a "<a href="Chilling_effect" title="Chilling effect">chilling effect</a>" among cultural practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>

The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "<a href="Free_Culture_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Culture movement">Free Culture</a>", but is substantively different. Free culture is a term derived from the <a href="Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">free software movement</a>, and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods (as in "the Good life") and ends.

Sites such as <a href="CcMixter" title="CcMixter">ccMixter</a> offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a <a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> license. The resulting cultural product is then available to download free (generally accessible) to anyone with an Internet connection.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Older, analog technologies such as the telephone or television have limitations on the kind of interaction users can have.

Through various technologies such as <a href="Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> networks and <a href="Blogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Blogs">blogs</a>, cultural producers can take advantage of vast <a href="Social_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networks">social networks</a> to distribute their products. As opposed to traditional media distribution, redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless. Technologies such as <a href="BitTorrent_(protocol)" class="mw-redirect" title="BitTorrent (protocol)">BitTorrent</a> and <a href="Gnutella" title="Gnutella">Gnutella</a> take advantage of various characteristics of the Internet protocol (<a href="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect" title="TCP/IP">TCP/IP</a>) in an attempt to totally decentralize file distribution.

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Open-source_software_movement" title="Open-source software movement">Open-source software movement</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Open politics">Open politics</a> (sometimes known as Open-source politics) is a political process that uses Internet technologies such as blogs, email and polling to provide for a rapid feedback mechanism between political organizations and their supporters. There is also an alternative conception of the term Open-source politics which relates to the development of public policy under a set of rules and processes similar to the open-source software movement.</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_governance" title="Open-source governance">Open-source governance</a> is similar to open-source politics, but it applies more to the democratic process and promotes the freedom of information.</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_political_campaign" title="Open-source political campaign">Open-source political campaigns</a> refer specifically to political campaigns.</li>

<li>The <a href="South_Korean_government" class="mw-redirect" title="South Korean government">South Korean government</a> wants to increase its use of free and open-source software, to decrease its dependence on proprietary software solutions. It plans to make open standards a requirement, to allow the government to choose between multiple operating systems and web browsers. Korea's Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning is also preparing ten pilots on using open-source software distributions.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3></div>

Open-source ethics is split into two strands:

<ul><li>Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the <a href="Association_of_Internet_Researchers" title="Association of Internet Researchers">AoIR</a> Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li>

<li>Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Open-source_religion" title="Open-source religion">Open-source religion</a></div>

Irish philosopher <a href="Richard_Kearney" title="Richard Kearney">Richard Kearney</a> has used the term "open-source <a href="Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>" to refer to the way historical figures such as <a href="Mohandas_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> and <a href="Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> worked upon this ancient tradition.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media_2">Media</h3></div>

<a href="Open-source_journalism" title="Open-source journalism">Open-source journalism</a> formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting <a href="Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">open-source intelligence</a>, a similar term used in military intelligence circles. Now, open-source journalism commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of <a href="Online_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Online journalism">online journalism</a>, rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as <a href="User_generated_content" class="mw-redirect" title="User generated content">user created content</a> and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as <a href="OpenSolaris" title="OpenSolaris">OpenSolaris</a> and <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>.

<a href="Blog" title="Blog">Weblogs</a>, or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or <a href="File_transfer" title="File transfer">file transfer</a> required. While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing. Some, such as <a href="LiveJournal" title="LiveJournal">LiveJournal</a> or <a href="WordPress" title="WordPress">WordPress</a>, use open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate, the mutability of blogs makes "open sourcing" even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere.

<a href="Messageboards" class="mw-redirect" title="Messageboards">Messageboards</a> are another platform for open-source culture. Messageboards (also known as discussion boards or forums), are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to. Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning <a href="Spamming" title="Spamming">spammers</a>. Other common board features are private messages (where users can send messages to one another) as well as chat (a way to have a real time conversation online) and image uploading. Some messageboards use <a href="PhpBB" title="PhpBB">phpBB</a>, which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly. Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas.

<a href="OpenDocument" title="OpenDocument">OpenDocument</a> is an <a href="Open_format" class="mw-redirect" title="Open format">open</a> <a href="Document_file_format" title="Document file format">document file format</a> for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents (including memos, reports, and books), <a href="Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">spreadsheets</a>, charts, and presentations. Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being <a href="Vendor_lock-in" title="Vendor lock-in">locked into</a> a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their <a href="Software_license" title="Software license">licensing</a> terms to something less favorable.

<a href="Open-source_film" title="Open-source film">Open-source movie production</a> is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie <a href="Elephants_Dream" title="Elephants Dream">Elephants Dream</a> is said to be the "world's first open movie",<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> created entirely using open-source technology.

An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material <a href="Footage" title="Footage">footage</a>, and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit <a href="WBCN_and_the_American_Revolution" title="WBCN and the American Revolution">WBCN and the American Revolution</a>, which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Center for Independent Documentary. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

<a href="Open-source_film" title="Open-source film">Open-source film-making</a> refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.

Open-IPTV is <a href="IPTV" class="mw-redirect" title="IPTV">IPTV</a> that is not limited to one recording studio, production studio, or cast. Open-IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an online community that all contributes to a show.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div>

Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" (analogous to the <a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a>). Proponents of this view have hailed the <a href="OpenStax_CNX" title="OpenStax CNX">Connexions</a> Project at <a href="Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a>, <a href="MIT_OpenCourseWare" title="MIT OpenCourseWare">OpenCourseWare</a> project at <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, <a href="Eugene_Thacker" title="Eugene Thacker">Eugene Thacker</a>'s article on "open-source DNA", the "Open Source Cultural Database", <a href="Salman_Khan_(educator)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salman Khan (educator)">Salman Khan</a>'s <a href="Khan_Academy" title="Khan Academy">Khan Academy</a> and Wikipedia as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software.

<a href="Open-source_curriculum" title="Open-source curriculum">Open-source curricula</a> are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified. Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours,<a href="#cite_note-BesançonPeiffer-Smadja2020-95">[95]</a> there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the <a href="Jisc" title="Jisc">Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)</a> has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called <a href="OSS_Watch" title="OSS Watch">OSS Watch</a> which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software.

On 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years to fund the <a href="TAACCCT" title="TAACCCT">TAACCCT program</a>, which is described as "the largest OER (open education resources) initiative in the world and uniquely focused on creating curricula in partnership with industry for credentials in vocational industry sectors like manufacturing, health, energy, transportation, and IT".<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innovation_communities">Innovation communities</h3></div>

The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century. Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist <a href="Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> described the four basic elements of the community—universalism (an international perspective), communalism (sharing information), objectivity (removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry) and organized skepticism (requirements of proof and review) that describe the (idealised) scientific community.

These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been <a href="Open_access_(publishing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open access (publishing)">open access</a>—the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public. There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee (either to users or libraries for access). The <a href="Budapest_Open_Access_Initiative" title="Budapest Open Access Initiative">Budapest Open Access Initiative</a> is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.

The <a href="National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> has recently proposed a policy on "Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information". This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered—the balancing of profit vs. public access, and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access.

<a href="Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the <a href="Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a>, <a href="Bifocals" title="Bifocals">bifocals</a>, and the <a href="Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a> to the public domain. New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <a href="Open_innovation" title="Open innovation">Open innovation</a> is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R&D in a common pool. The <a href="Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)">Eclipse</a> platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_recreation">Arts and recreation</h3></div>

Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities. Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a>

In 2012, Russian music composer, scientist and <a href="Russian_Pirate_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Pirate Party">Russian Pirate Party</a> member <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_Numbers_(%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0)" class="extiw external" title="ru:Complex Numbers (музыкальная группа)">Victor Argonov</a> presented detailed raw files of his electronic opera "2032"<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> under free license <a href="CC_BY-NC" class="mw-redirect" title="CC BY-NC">CC BY-NC 3.0</a> (later relicensed under <a href="CC_BY-SA" class="mw-redirect" title="CC BY-SA">CC BY-SA 4.0</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>). This opera was originally composed and published in 2007 by Russian label <a href="MC_Entertainment" title="MC Entertainment">MC Entertainment</a> as a commercial product, but then the author changed its status to free. In his blog<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> he said that he decided to open raw files (including wav, midi and other used formats) to the public to support worldwide pirate actions against <a href="SOPA" class="mw-redirect" title="SOPA">SOPA</a> and <a href="Personal_Information_Protection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal Information Protection Act">PIPA</a>. Several Internet resources called "2032" the first open-source musical opera in history.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_related_movements">Other related movements</h3></div>

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Notable events and applications that have been developed via the <a href="Open-source_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source community">open source community</a>, and echo the ideologies of the open source movement,<a href="#cite_note-ref_e_TnL-107">[107]</a> include the <a href="Open_Education_Consortium" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Education Consortium">Open Education Consortium</a>, <a href="Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>, Synthethic Biology, and Wikipedia. The Open Education Consortium is an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online. This organization, headed by <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials. Wikipedia is a user-generated <a href="Internet_encyclopedia_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet encyclopedia project">online encyclopedia</a> with sister projects in academic areas, such as <a href="Wikiversity" title="Wikiversity">Wikiversity</a>—a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials.<a href="#cite_note-ref_e_Warger-108">[108]</a>

Prior to the existence of <a href="Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a> Beta, Project Gutenberg was the first supplier of <a href="E-book" class="mw-redirect" title="E-book">electronic books</a> and the first free library project.<a href="#cite_note-ref_e_Warger-108">[108]</a> Synthetic Biology is a new technology that promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs, as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem. Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its lab stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. To industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideologically-related_movements">Ideologically-related movements</h3></div>

The <a href="Open-access_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-access movement">open-access movement</a> is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement. Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with "future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes." The open-access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials.<a href="#cite_note-ref_a4-110">[110]</a> The <a href="Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">free-culture movement</a> is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas, and promotion of citizen liberties.<a href="#cite_note-FreeCulture-111">[111]</a> <a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a> is an organization that "develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation." It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of "all rights reserved" properties.<a href="#cite_note-Creative_Commons-112">[112]</a> The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to "all rights reserved" copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>

<a href="The_Zeitgeist_Movement" title="The Zeitgeist Movement">The Zeitgeist Movement</a> (TZM) is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a <a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> "resource-based economy" based on <a href="Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaboration</a> in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons-based ones with everyone <a href="Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">having access</a> to everything (from code to products) as in "open source everything".<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> While its activism and events are typically focused on media and education, TZM is a major supporter of open source projects worldwide since they allow for uninhibited advancement of science and technology, independent of constraints posed by institutions of patenting and capitalist investment.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> P2P Foundation is an "international organization focused on studying, researching, documenting and promoting <a href="Social_peer-to-peer_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Social peer-to-peer processes">peer to peer practices</a> in a very broad sense." Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement, whose principles are integrated in a larger socio-economic model.<a href="#cite_note-P2P_Foundation-117">[117]</a>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Meta has related information at: <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Open-source" class="extiw external" title="meta:Open-source">Open-source</a></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Open-source" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Open-source">Open-source</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_publishing" title="Open publishing">Open publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_research" title="Open research">Open research</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_curriculum" title="Open-source curriculum">Open-source curriculum</a> (OSC)</li>

<li><a href="Open-source_governance" title="Open-source governance">Open-source governance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Open politics">Open politics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_religion" title="Open-source religion">Open-source religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_movement" title="Open-source software movement">Open-source software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_unionism" title="Open-source unionism">Open-source unionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_standard" title="Open standard">Open standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Paywall" title="Paywall">Paywall</a></li>

<li><a href="Hackathon" title="Hackathon">Hackathon</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terms_based_on_open_source">Terms based on open source</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_implementation" title="Open implementation">Open implementation</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_security" title="Open security">Open security</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_record_label" title="Open-source record label">Open-source record label</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_standard" title="Open standard">Open standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Source" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared Source">Shared Source</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-available_software" title="Source-available software">Source-available software</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_2">Other</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Open_Sources%3A_Voices_from_the_Open_Source_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution">Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution</a> (book)</li>

<li><a href="Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">Digital rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Diseconomies_of_scale" title="Diseconomies of scale">Diseconomies of scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li>

<li><a href="Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Glossary_of_legal_terms_in_technology" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Appendix:Glossary of legal terms in technology">Glossary of legal terms in technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_collaboration" title="Mass collaboration">Mass collaboration</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_effect" title="Network effect">Network effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Openness" title="Openness">Openness</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary software</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_public_goods" title="Digital public goods">Digital public goods</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070611152544/https://opensource.org/docs/osd">"The Open Source Definition"</a>. Open Source Org. 7 July 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opensource.org/docs/osd">the original</a> on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2020. <q>Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Diffingo_Solutions_Inc.,_2008-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Diffingo_Solutions_Inc.,_2008_2-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081028104313/http://www.diffingo.com/oss/whyoss">"What is Open Source Software"</a>. Diffingo Solutions Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://diffingo.com/oss/whyoss">the original</a> on 28 October 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2023. <q>Open source software differs from other software because it has a less restrictive license agreement: Instead of using a restrictive license that prevents you from modifying the program or sharing it with friends for example, sharing and modifying open source software is encouraged. Anyone who wishes to do so may distribute, modify or even create derivative works based on that source code!</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-LevinePrietula2013-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LevinePrietula2013_3-5">f</a> <cite id="CITEREFLevinePrietula2013" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Sheen S.; Prietula, M. J. (2013). "Open Collaboration for Innovation: Principles and Performance". Organization Science. 25 (5): 1414–1433. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.7541">1406.7541</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.2013.0872">10.1287/orsc.2013.0872</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7039">1047-7039</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6583883">6583883</a>. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1096442">1096442</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRaymond2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Raymond, Eric S.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cathedralbaz00raym">The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary</a>. OReilly. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-596-00108-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Pearce2012-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearce2012_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearce2012_5-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPearce2012" class="citation journal cs1">Pearce, Joshua M (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1517361">"The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology"</a>. Environment, Development and Sustainability. 14 (3): 425–431. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012EDSus..14..425P">2012EDSus..14..425P</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10668-012-9337-9">10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1387-585X">1387-585X</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-business-standard.com-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-business-standard.com_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-business-standard.com_6-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFMenon2009" class="citation news cs1">Menon, Sreelatha (1 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/sreelatha-menon-researchers-sans-borders/00/19/350429/">""Science 2.0 is here as CSIR resorts to open source drug research for TB""</a>. Business Standard India – via Business Standard.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-OpenWetWare-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OpenWetWare_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OpenWetWare_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OpenWetWare_7-2">c</a> <a href="https://openwetware.org/wiki/OSDDMalaria:GSK_Arylpyrrole_Series:Story_so_far" class="extiw external" title="openwetware:OSDDMalaria:GSK Arylpyrrole Series:Story so far">"Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium</a>.

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<li id="cite_note-LakhaniVonHippel2003-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LakhaniVonHippel2003_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LakhaniVonHippel2003_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LakhaniVonHippel2003_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LakhaniVonHippel2003_8-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFLakhanivon_Hippel2003" class="citation journal cs1">Lakhani, K.R.; von Hippel, E. (June 2003). "How Open Source Software Works: Free User to User Assistance". Research Policy. 32 (6): 923–943. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0048-7333%2802%2900095-1">10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00095-1</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F70028">1721.1/70028</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-7333">0048-7333</a>. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=290305">290305</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-GerberMolefo2010-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GerberMolefo2010_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GerberMolefo2010_9-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFGerbeMolefoVan_der_Merwe2010" class="citation book cs1">Gerbe, Aurona; Molefo, Onkgopotse; Van der Merwe, Alta (2010). "Documenting open-source migration processes for re-use". In Kotze, P.; Gerber, A.; van der Merwe, A.; et al. (eds.). Proceedings of the SAICSIT 2010 Conference — Fountains of Computing Research. ACM Press. pp. 75–85. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1033.7791">10.1.1.1033.7791</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1899503.1899512">10.1145/1899503.1899512</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-60558-950-3</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11970697">11970697</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeber2004">Weber 2004</a>

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<li id="cite_note-carculture-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carculture_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carculture_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carculture_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carculture_11-3">d</a> <cite id="CITEREFFlink1977" class="citation book cs1">Flink, James J. (1977). The Car Culture. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-56015-3</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-autogenerated172-12"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated172_12-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFisherMcKieMancke1983" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Franklin M.; McKie, James W.; Mancke, Richard B. (1983). IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History. Praeger. pp. 172–9. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-03-063059-0</bdi>.</cite> IBM unbundled (began charging for) software 23 June 1969.

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<li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-13"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_13-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html">Dave Pitts' IBM 7090 support</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150827134534/http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html">Archived</a> 27 August 2015 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – An example of distributed source: Page contains a link to <a href="IBM_7090/94_IBSYS" title="IBM 7090/94 IBSYS">IBM 7090/94 IBSYS</a> source, including <a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> and <a href="FORTRAN" class="mw-redirect" title="FORTRAN">FORTRAN</a> compilers.

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBenkler2006" class="citation book cs1">Benkler, Yochai (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benkler.org/Benkler_Wealth_Of_Networks.pdf">The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom</a> (PDF). Yale University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBerry2008" class="citation book cs1">Berry, David M. (2008). Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source. London:Pluto Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0745324142</bdi>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</li>

<li>Karl Fogel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://producingoss.com">Producing Open Source Software</a> (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGoldmanGabriel2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Ron; Gabriel, Richard P. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dreamsongs.com/IHE/IHE.html">Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy</a>. Richard P. Gabriel. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-55860-889-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDunlap2006" class="citation book cs1">Dunlap, Isaac Hunter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php?ID=98">Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals</a>. Oxford: Chandos. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84334-161-1</bdi>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKostakis,_V.Bauwens,_M.2014" class="citation book cs1">Kostakis, V.; Bauwens, M. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-137-41506-6</bdi>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy">(wiki)</a></li>

<li>Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/nettingsmeier_dont_hack.html">eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application</a> (September 2009). Montréal: <a href="Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStallman" class="citation book cs1">Stallman, Richard M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society">Free Software Free Society: Selected essays of Richard M. Stallman</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchrape2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schrape, Jan-Felix (2019). "Open-source projects as incubators of innovation. From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry". <a href="Convergence_(journal)" title="Convergence (journal)">Convergence</a>. 25 (3): 409–427. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1354856517735795">10.1177/1354856517735795</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1354-8565">1354-8565</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149165772">149165772</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Various authors. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3">eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application</a> (September 2009). Montréal: <a href="Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li>

<li>Various authors. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cecpublic.pbworks.com/OpenSource">Open Source Travel Guide [wiki]</a>". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3">eContact! 11.3 – Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application</a> (September 2009). Montréal: <a href="Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community" title="Canadian Electroacoustic Community">CEC</a>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWeber2004" class="citation book cs1">Weber, Steve (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/successofopensou00webe">The Success of Open Source</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-674-01292-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRayRai2013" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Partha Pratim; Rai, Rebika (2013). Open Source Hardware: An Introductory Approach. Lap Lambert Publishing House. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-659-46591-8</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_on_legal_and_economic_aspects">Literature on legal and economic aspects</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBenkler2002" class="citation journal cs1">Benkler, Y. (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benkler.org/CoasesPenguin.PDF">"Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm"</a> (PDF). Yale Law Journal. 112 (3): 369–446. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0109077">cs/0109077</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1562247">10.2307/1562247</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10535%2F2974">10535/2974</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-0094">0044-0094</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1562247">1562247</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16684329">16684329</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBerryMoss2008" class="citation web cs1">Berry, D.M.; Moss, G. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/LibreCultureMeditationsOnFreeCulture">"Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture"</a> (PDF). Canada: Pygmalion Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBitzerSchröder2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P.J.H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpio/0512001.html">"The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity"</a> (PDF). Industrial Organization. EconWPA.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFv._Engelhardt2008" class="citation journal cs1">v. Engelhardt, S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-045.html">"The Economic Properties of Software"</a> (PDF). Jena Economic Research Papers. 2: 2008–045.</cite></li>

<li>v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFv._EngelhardtSwaminathan2008" class="citation journal cs1">v. Engelhardt, S.; Swaminathan, S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/diw/diwwpp/dp799.html">"Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights"</a> (PDF). Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin.</cite></li>

<li>European Commission. (2006). Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU. Brussels.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFv._Hippel,_E.v._Krogh,_G.2003" class="citation journal cs1">v. Hippel, E.; v. Krogh, G. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/66145/1/SSRN-id1410789.pdf">"Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science"</a> (PDF). Organization Science. 14 (2): 209–223. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.14.2.209.14992">10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F66145">1721.1/66145</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7039">1047-7039</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11947692">11947692</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLerner_J.,_Pathak_P._A.,_Tirole,_J.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3023">"The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors"</a>. American Economic Review. 96 (2): 114–8. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.510.9948">10.1.1.510.9948</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F000282806777211874">10.1257/000282806777211874</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8282">0002-8282</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLerner,_J.,_Tirole,_J.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Lerner, J., Tirole, J. (2002). "Some simple economics on open source". Journal of Industrial Economics. 50 (2): 197–234. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.461.3373">10.1.1.461.3373</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-6451.00174">10.1111/1467-6451.00174</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1821">0022-1821</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219722756">219722756</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.hbs.edu/jlerner/simple.pdf">earlier revision (PDF)</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLerner,_J.Tirole,_J.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). "The Scope of Open Source Licensing". The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization. 21: 20–56. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.72.465">10.1.1.72.465</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjleo%2Fewi002">10.1093/jleo/ewi002</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/8756-6222">8756-6222</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLerner,_J.Tirole,_J.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lerner, J.; Tirole, J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w10956.pdf">"The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond"</a> (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (2): 99–120. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F0895330054048678">10.1257/0895330054048678</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0895-3309">0895-3309</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17968894">17968894</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMaurer,_S.M.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Maurer, S.M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/1516">"Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several)"</a>. UMKC Law Review. 76 (2). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.1114371">10.2139/ssrn.1114371</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068">1556-5068</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54046895">54046895</a>. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1114371">1114371</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOsterlohRota2007" class="citation journal cs1">Osterloh, M.; Rota, S. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crema-research.ch/papers/2005-08.pdf">"Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention?"</a> (PDF). Research Policy. 36 (2): 157–171. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.respol.2006.10.004">10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F214322">10419/214322</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-7333">0048-7333</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRiehle2007" class="citation journal cs1">Riehle, D. (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.riehle.org/computer-science/research/2007/computer-2007-article.html">"The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives"</a>. IEEE Computer. 40 (4): 25–32. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMC.2007.147">10.1109/MC.2007.147</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9162">0018-9162</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168544">168544</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRossi2006" class="citation book cs1">Rossi, M.A. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/usi/wpaper/424.html">"Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions"</a> (PDF). In Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P. (eds.). The Economics of Open Source Software Development. Elsevier. pp. 15–55. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-444-52769-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchiff2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Schiff, A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030507164146/http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf">"The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature"</a> (PDF). Review of Network Economics. 1 (1): 66–74. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2202%2F1446-9022.1004">10.2202/1446-9022.1004</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2194-5993">2194-5993</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201280221">201280221</a>. Archived from the original on 7 May 2003.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz,_M.Takhteyev,_Y.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schwarz, M.; Takhteyev, Y. (2010). "Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem". Journal of Public Economic Theory. 12 (4): 609–639. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.625.2368">10.1.1.625.2368</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9779.2010.01467.x">10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1097-3923">1097-3923</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154317482">154317482</a>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946">earlier revision</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSpagnolettiFederici2011" class="citation journal cs1">Spagnoletti, P.; Federici, T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol29/iss1/15/">"Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation"</a>. Communications of the Association for Information Systems. 29 (15): 279–298. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17705%2F1CAIS.02915">10.17705/1CAIS.02915</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAbramson2005" class="citation book cs1">Abramson, Bruce (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/digitalphoenixwh00abra">Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again</a>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-51196-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSampathkumar" class="citation book cs1">Sampathkumar, K.S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2JwU71HSkikC">Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-8-184-65469-1</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Open_Source" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Open Source">Open Source</a></div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Use_the_Source" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Use the Source">Use the Source</a></div></div>

</div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Free_culture_and_open_content148" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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</style><div id="Free_culture_and_open_content148" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free culture</a> and <a href="Free_content" title="Free content">open content</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts and practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Key concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>

<li><a href="Crowdsourcing" title="Crowdsourcing">Crowdsourcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Gratis_versus_libre" title="Gratis versus libre">Gratis versus libre</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_collaboration" title="Open collaboration">Open collaboration</a></li>

<li><a href="Openness" title="Openness">Openness</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharism" title="Sharism">Sharism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Research and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">Citizen science</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_science" title="Open science">Open science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open_access" title="Open access">Access</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-notebook_science" title="Open-notebook science">Notebook science</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_research" title="Open research">Research</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_science_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Open science data">Science data</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Data, information, and knowledge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_communication" title="Open communication">Open communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_knowledge" title="Open knowledge">Open knowledge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Content</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Communication and learning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collaborative_writing" title="Collaborative writing">Collaborative writing</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_media" title="Democratic media">Democratic media</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_publishing" title="Open publishing">Open publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_media" title="Participatory media">Participatory media</a></li>

<li><a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Open_education" title="Open education">Open education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">educational resources</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_admissions" title="Open admissions">admissions</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-door_academic_policy" title="Open-door academic policy">open-door policy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open_universities" title="List of open universities">List of open universities</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Journalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Citizen_media" title="Citizen media">Citizen media</a>

<ul><li><a href="Citizen_journalism" title="Citizen journalism">Citizen journalism</a> and <a href="Wiki_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiki journalism">Wiki journalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_journalism" title="Open-source journalism">Open-source journalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a> (FOSS)

<ul><li><a href="Free_software" title="Free software">Free/libre software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Robotics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open_gaming" title="Open gaming">Open gaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_architecture" title="Open-source architecture">Open-source architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Economic principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_innovation" title="Open innovation">Open innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_patent" class="mw-redirect" title="Open patent">Open patent</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_standard" title="Open standard">Open standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Politics and governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Open_government" title="Open government">Open government</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_governance" title="Open-source governance">Open-source governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country" title="Freedom of information laws by country">Freedom of information laws by country</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Architecture_Network" title="Open Architecture Network">Open Architecture Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Energy_Modelling_Initiative" title="Open Energy Modelling Initiative">Openmod Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Knowledge_Foundation" title="Open Knowledge Foundation">Open Knowledge Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">Open Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Web_Foundation" title="Open Web Foundation">Open Web Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholarly_Publishing_and_Academic_Resources_Coalition" title="Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition">SPARC</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Murray-Rust" title="Peter Murray-Rust">Peter Murray-Rust</a></li>

<li><a href="Douglas_Rushkoff" title="Douglas Rushkoff">Douglas Rushkoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li>

<li><a href="Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Wilbanks" title="John Wilbanks">John Wilbanks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects and movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anna's_Archive" title="Anna's Archive">Anna's Archive</a></li>

<li><a href="Do-it-yourself_biology" title="Do-it-yourself biology">DIYbio</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_Genesis" title="Library Genesis">Library Genesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_science" title="Open science">Open science movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Ecology" title="Open Source Ecology">Open Source Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_movement" title="Open-source software movement">Open-source software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenCores" title="OpenCores">OpenCores</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenWetWare" title="OpenWetWare">OpenWetWare</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Anarchist_Library" title="The Anarchist Library">The Anarchist Library</a></li>

<li><a href="Z-Library" title="Z-Library">Z-Library</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tools5" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_software_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Free software license">Licenses</a>

<ul><li><a href="Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons</a></li>

<li>Definition docs

<ul><li><a href="Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works" title="Definition of Free Cultural Works">Free Cultural Works</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Free_Software_Definition" title="The Free Software Definition">Free Software</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Open_Source_Definition" title="The Open Source Definition">Open Source</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Open_Data_Indices" title="Open Data Indices">Open Data Indices</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_educational_resources" title="Open educational resources">Open educational resources</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Web" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Web">Open Web movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism89" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Intellectual_property_activism89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li>

<li><a href="Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>

<li><a href="Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li>

<li><a href="Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li>

<li><a href="Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li>

<li><a href="Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li>

<li><a href="Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Societal_views_on_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li>

<li><a href="Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li>

<li><a href="Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li>

<li><a href="Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li>

<li><a href="Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prizes instead of patents</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anna's_Archive" title="Anna's Archive">Anna's Archive</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_Genesis" title="Library Genesis">Library Genesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Anarchist_Library" title="The Anarchist Library">The Anarchist Library</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li>

<li><a href="Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li>

<li><a href="Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Shadow_library" title="Shadow library">Shadow library</a></li>

<li><a href="Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Z-Library" title="Z-Library">Z-Library</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li>

<li><a href="Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film">Steal This Film</a></li>

<li><a href="RiP!%3A_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto">RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Internet's_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy">The Internet's Own Boy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Free_and_open-source_software510" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Free_and_open-source_software510" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_terms_for_free_software" title="Alternative terms for free software">Alternative terms for free software</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_and_closed-source_software" title="Comparison of open-source and closed-source software">Comparison of open-source and closed-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_source-code-hosting_facilities" title="Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities">Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_software" title="Free software">Free software</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_software_project_directories" title="List of free software project directories">Free software project directories</a></li>

<li><a href="Gratis_versus_libre" title="Gratis versus libre">Gratis versus libre</a></li>

<li><a href="Long-term_support" title="Long-term support">Long-term support</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_development" title="Open-source software development">Open-source software development</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_free_software" title="Outline of free software">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="Timeline of free and open-source software">Timeline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages" title="List of free and open-source software packages">Software packages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_free_software_for_audio" title="Comparison of free software for audio">Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_bioinformatics_software" title="List of open-source bioinformatics software">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_codecs" title="List of open-source codecs">Codecs</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_configuration_management_software" title="Comparison of open-source configuration management software">Configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">Drivers</a>

<ul><li><a href="Free_and_open-source_graphics_device_driver" title="Free and open-source graphics device driver">Graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_wireless_drivers" title="Comparison of open-source wireless drivers">Wireless</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_software_for_mathematics" title="List of open-source software for mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_office_suites" title="List of office suites">Office suites</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_open-source_operating_systems" title="Comparison of open-source operating systems">Operating systems</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_routing_platforms" title="List of open-source routing platforms">Routing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_television_software" title="List of free television software">Television</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_video_games" title="List of open-source video games">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_web_applications" title="List of free and open-source web applications">Web applications</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_shopping_cart_software" title="Comparison of shopping cart software">E-commerce</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_Android_applications" title="List of free and open-source Android applications">Android apps</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_commercial_open-source_applications_and_services" title="List of commercial open-source applications and services">Commercial</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_formerly_proprietary_software" title="List of formerly proprietary software">Formerly proprietary</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_formerly_free_and_open-source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="List of formerly free and open-source software">Formerly open-source</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Community_of_practice" title="Community of practice">Community</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source-software_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source-software movement">Open-source-software movement</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_free-software_events" title="List of free-software events">Events</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_advocacy" title="Open-source software advocacy">Advocacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_free_and_open-source_software_organizations" title="List of free and open-source software organizations">Organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_Software_Movement_of_India" title="Free Software Movement of India">Free Software Movement of India</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Licenses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Apache_License" title="Apache License">Apache</a></li>

<li><a href="Artistic_License" title="Artistic License">Artistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Beerware" title="Beerware">Beerware</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_Commons_license" title="Creative Commons license">Creative Commons</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a>

<li><a href="Python_License" title="Python License">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_Software_Foundation_License" title="Python Software Foundation License">Python Software Foundation License</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Source_Initiative" title="Shared Source Initiative">Shared Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleepycat_License" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleepycat License">Sleepycat</a></li>

<li><a href="Unlicense" title="Unlicense">Unlicense</a></li>

<li><a href="WTFPL" title="WTFPL">WTFPL</a></li>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Types_and_standards23" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_free_and_open-source_software_licenses" title="Comparison of free and open-source software licenses">Comparison of licenses</a></li>

<li><a href="Contributor_License_Agreement" title="Contributor License Agreement">Contributor License Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li>

<li><a href="Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Debian Free Software Guidelines">Debian Free Software Guidelines</a></li>

<li><a href="Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works" title="Definition of Free Cultural Works">Definition of Free Cultural Works</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_license" title="Free license">Free license</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Free_Software_Definition" title="The Free Software Definition">The Free Software Definition</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Open_Source_Definition" title="The Open Source Definition">The Open Source Definition</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_license" title="Open-source license">Open-source license</a></li>

<li><a href="Permissive_software_license" title="Permissive software license">Permissive software license</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Challenges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>

<li><a href="License_proliferation" title="License proliferation">License proliferation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozilla_software_rebranded_by_Debian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozilla software rebranded by Debian">Mozilla software rebranding</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_device_driver" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprietary device driver">Proprietary device drivers</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_firmware" title="Proprietary firmware">Proprietary firmware</a></li>

<li><a href="Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">Proprietary software</a></li>

<li><a href="SCO%E2%80%93Linux_disputes" title="SCO–Linux disputes">SCO/Linux controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_patents_and_free_software" title="Software patents and free software">Software patents</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software_security" title="Open-source software security">Software security</a></li>

<li><a href="Tivoization" title="Tivoization">Tivoization</a></li>

<li><a href="Trusted_Computing" title="Trusted Computing">Trusted Computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">Forking</a></li>

<li><a href="GNU_Manifesto" title="GNU Manifesto">GNU Manifesto</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_Open_Specification_Promise" title="Microsoft Open Specification Promise">Microsoft Open Specification Promise</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-core_model" title="Open-core model">Open-core model</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Source_Initiative" title="Shared Source Initiative">Shared Source Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-available_software" title="Source-available software">Source-available software</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Cathedral_and_the_Bazaar" title="The Cathedral and the Bazaar">The Cathedral and the Bazaar</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolution_OS" title="Revolution OS">Revolution OS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AFree_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata528" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39162#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata528" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4548264-0">Germany</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/dc98b6c3-cb43-43f7-b443-799755c0df71">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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